It has been a relaxing yet exciting week at MCC. Although we have been chilling around campus, it was easy to get pumped up considering that this was Diwali week. A noticeable feeling of excitement radiated across campus and permeated the streets of the Tambaram market. Early in the week, Dr. Suresh showed us a place in the market where we could purchase delicious goodies from a local bakery. I chose a box of doughnut-like pastries that hit the spot. Dr. Suresh also purchased a small box of fireworks so that we could practice shooting them off for Diwali. It cracked me up to see how giddy and excited Dr. Suresh became when the fuses were lit.
We also made a trip down the highway to the money exchange office. There was a sign on the wall in the office that read, "After withdrawing money, go directly home; do not stop for tea or chat with friends." On the way back from the exchange office, I saw a man crossing the busy street with his elephant.
This week was also a monumental week in that I tried doing yoga. We have an instructor who comes to campus early in the morning and puts us through our paces. Although I have learned some useful stretches, the experience has not been entirely seamless - I blew out the crotch in by athletic shorts when I tried to do the "wood chop squat."
Today was Diwali! It's like a fusion of Christmas, Haloween, and the 4th of July - gifts, good food, costumes, and fireworks are all piled into one rockin' holiday. We spent the day at the Muthukrishnan home. It was so cool to see where Dr. Suresh grew up. Stephen and Suresh's cousin set off fireworks outside while everyone watched from the front porch. Judging by the explosive force, there is no way these fireworks would be available to the public in the US! Lunch was served to us on a banana leaf as we sat "Indian style" on the dining room floor. I was able to perfect my hand-eating technique; pinch, twist, and thumb flick is the optimal sequence. We are getting ready to meet up with students and faculty from Davidson for a Diwali dinner. It will be nice to see other students from the US.
Tomorrow we are leaving for a 5-day trip to Tiuchirappalli. Check in early next week for an update on our adventures.
It has been nearly three weeks since our arrival in India. In our intense, 6-week study period at Furman, we read several articles on some of the issues that India is facing with respect to its water supply. Although I was able to assimilate the information in the articles and learn from the material presented to us in lectures, I feel that I have a much better understanding of the India's major hydrological challenges now that I have spent several weeks living in India. The following blog is dedicated to my personal reflections on India's water supply.
Even before we arrived in India, Dr. Suresh and Dr. Khandke repeatedly warned the students in the India study away group to only consume bottled water. When we got to MCC, I began to understand why our professors were concerned about the quality of the tap water. It was around 4 AM when we began to groggily unpack our belongings into our rooms. Having not brushed my teeth since our layover in Germany, I was eager to freshen my breath, so I grabbed my toothbrush and toothpaste from my backpack and made my way to the bathroom. My brain was on autopilot as I squeezed toothpaste onto my toothbrush and ran it under the water flowing out of the faucet. After brushing my teeth and rinsing my mouth out with tap water, I urgently began to spit into the sink with machine gun-like rapidity - the water possessed a foul, metallic taste. It was then that I realized my mistake and discovered that my professors weren't kidding when they warned us about India's questionable water quality.
For me, this incident with tap water at the sink in our dorm room set the hydrologic tone for the trip. From that point on, I have tried to be more observant of water in India. Over the course of our time in India, I have noticed that I constantly feel dirty - it seems like its impossible to get clean, even after taking a shower. This is due in large part to the fact that the tap water in many parts of the state of Tamil Nadu can be considered hard water. Water is classified as hard water if it has high dissolved concentrations of group two metals like calcium and magnesium. When taking a shower, these ions in the water react with the organic acids of soap to form insoluble salts that form a slimy scum on the skin. As a result, the high ion concentration of the water makes it difficult to achieve a cleansing lather and one's skin remains partially dirty. In addition to this constant feeling of uncleanliness, a more humorous indicator of the abnormal water quality is how "poofy" everyone's hair has become after continual exposure to the water in India.
However, the water on the campus of MCC is sanitary and potable in comparison to the water that I saw in the Tambaram market. While walking through the market place, I was shocked by the amount of trash that littered the streets. Everything from old candy wrappers to to rotting fish heads could be seen laying in the gutters. I was stood aghast as I watched a little girl in the market squat walk up to one of the gutters, squat down, and deposit the contents of her moving bowels in the stagnant drain water. It was also alarmingly common to see men publicly relieve the pressure on their bladders on the side of the street. India's water quality is literally shitty.
After I witnessed firsthand the egregious conditions of the water in the Tambaram market, the dire state of India's water supply began to sink in. It is imperative that the water quality of Tambaram and the rest of India is improved. I suddenly felt very academic and snobbish after my summer working with the River Basins Research Initiative and conducting a research on dissolved organic carbon in the headwaters of streams in the upstate of South Carolina. Although my summer research was very interesting, I feel like not knowing the source of dissolved organic matter in a stream is a first-world problem in comparison to the dire water quality issues that India is facing. A slightly high pH value or a curiously abnormal conductivity reading in the Upper Saluda River seems trivial considering the fact that there are towns in India that have stagnated water bodies contaminated with human waste.
Prior to coming on this study away trip, I had a tentative interest in pursuing hydrology in graduate school. After witnessing the horrid conditions of water in India, this feeling of interest has been confirmed and intensified. I feel an urgent need to help improve water quality. Going to school in Greenville, South Carolina, where high quality water is readily available from the tap, I have taken clean, drinkable water for granted. Witnessing the water conditions in India has made me more appreciative of water in the United States and has motivated me to develop ways in which water quality can be improved in countries like India.
However, hydrologists can only do so much in improving the quality of water. There must be stricter Governmental regulations on public defecation and greater enforcement against littering. It will be interesting to see what policies the Indian government implements to improve sanitation throughout the nation.
Things were pretty laid back at MCC this past Wednesday and Thursday. I kept up my post-lecture routine of going for a run around campus. I'm just now starting to get used to the thick humidity. I have a feeling the air in South Carolina is going to feel thin and crisp when I return stateside in December. While on my run, I saw a mongoose dart into the woods, which brought back childhood memories of watching the cartoon adaptation of Rudyard Kipling's Rikki-Tikki-Tavi. We also ventured over to the athletic fields to play ultimate frisbee. Multiple MCC students stopped to watch us play as they were walking by. A large group of Americans running around and tossing a disk must have been an exotic sight. We'll have to teach the students how to play eventually.
Teatime is one of the best parts of the day. Every afternoon around 5 PM, our cooks put out a thermos of hot, subtly sweet tea. The tea is accompanied by an assortment of Indian cookies including "Good Day" and "Nice Time." Oreos are also served occasionally. Instead of "milk's favorite cookie," Oreos in India are marketed as "the world's most popular biscuit."
This past Friday was one of the best days of the trip so far. We finally got a taste of Indian village life got the chance to interact with the locals. We left MCC early in the morning and traveled to the famous silk selling town of Kancheepuram. The girls spent the morning shopping for their Diwali sarees. After the final selections were made, we stopped at a local vegetarian restaurant for lunch. Suresh recommended that I order the dosa and I was shocked when the massive, crepe-like creation was placed in front of me. After several awkward attempts at mastication and deglutition, I resorted to the break-and-dip method.
Lunch was followed by a stop at the small village of Cheyyar, where we got to go on a tour of the place where the silk becomes sarees. It was amazing to see the expert weaver skilfully operate the loom with machine-like precision. The saree that the weaver was working on when we arrived was being made of bright pink silk and gold thread. Apparently, sarees of this quality can take up to 50 hours to complete and sell for around 2,500 rupees ($500).
The next stop in the village was a pottery/brick making area. After the potter gave a demonstration of his craft, he let Tori and Alexa try their hands at the wheel. I could tell that the locals who had gathered around to watch were thoroughly enjoying the spectacle based on their toothy smiles and hearty laughs. It was nice to hang out with local Indians who were genuinely interested in interacting, not pandering for handouts like the people in the city.
We drove from the village to Suresh's in-laws house for a quick snack and then went to watch a live dance drama performance arranged by Suresh's father-in-law. The rooftop performance was colorful, lively, engaging, and enjoyable.
Throughout the day, we saw hoards of men dressed in white standing in the streets, waiting to hear the results of the municipal elections. I was impressed by the intense commitment to political activism. Even when we were driving back to MCC at midnight, hundreds of men lined the streets of every town we passed through.
Saturday was a dramatic change of pace from the relaxing village vibe - we traveled into the bustling heart of downtown Chennai. I was expecting the city to be brimming with trash and refuse, but the wide city streets were surprisingly devoid of trash. Immense construction projects were underway including a gigantic cricket stadium and impressive music auditorium. I was Sony, Adidas, and Nike stores as well as BMW, Mercedes, and Audi dealerships. We eventually rolled up to the largest mall in Chennai. With Diwali next week, we were essentially shopping at a mall in New York the week before Christmas - lots of people! It was impressive to see an urbanized center and I was finally able to see why India has one of the fastest growing economies in the world.
On the final day of our 5-day trip, we visited a massive temple composed of four superstructures and an inner sanctum. The most interesting aspect of the temple was the large pond at the center. This body of water enables rainwater harvesting and provides a place for people to bathe and wash their clothes. however, the water has seen better days - it was a nasty greenish-brown color and several fish were seen floating belly-up. The next stop was a mangrove forest, where we got to go on guided boat rides through the vegetation. Some of us forgot that we were in India since the forest was similar to Florida.
I got a glimpse of the Indian sense of humor when we were ordering ice cream at a restaurant after boating. Eric said, "none for me," and the waiter responded, "'non for me' is not a flavor - we have only chocolate and vanilla." With our stomachs full of naan and ice cream, we began our 4-hour bus ride to MCC. Tori had the brilliant idea of stowing herself in the luggage bins near the ceiling of the bus. Luke, Alexa, and I soon followed. It was nice to arrive back at MCC. This place is starting to fell more like home away from home.
We had a 50 km drive to get from the hotel to the Neveli Lignite Mine (NLM). Although the trip should have taken about an hour, weaving around tractors, buses, goats, cows, and pedestrians extended the drive into a 2-hour ordeal. The mine was an amazing sight. Sometimes I get the feeling like I'm in Middle Earth, not India. Bilbo Baggins already gave us a tour of Auroville and the barren, excavated landscape of the massive mine eerily similar to Mordor. So far, there have been no signs of Orcs. Not only was the site much larger than I anticipated, the operation changed my perception of mines. The directors of the mine utilized sustainable practices including aquifer water recycling for hydroelectric power generation, afforestation of mined areas, and construction of retention ponds and groundwater recharge areas. This was my favorite stop of the trip so far.
After the tour of the mine, our group stopped at a roadside drive-in restaurant. Several of us ordered the scezhuan fried rice. When I was the bright orange color of the grains on my plate, I knew my capsaicin tolerance was going to be tested. Suresh said the dish was 7 on a 1-10 scale of hotness. I was thankful for the nearby Arun ice cream shop!
We left the Dune this morning and made the short drive down the road to the gorgeous city of Pondicherry. As we were walking down the beautiful, tree-lined streets of Pondi, I was surprised to see a large Indian elephant decorated with ceremonial paint and ankle bracelets. It was a well-trained elephant - she used her trunk to deftly pluck rupees from the outstretched hands of visitors. She also used her trunk to "bless" people outside of the temple. It's not everyday you get bonked on the head by an elephant! I was filled with awe when we rolled up to our sea side hotel in Pondi. I felt like I was in France. Fresh, warm croissants and a rich , robust buffet greeted our hungry stomachs. The guys and I spent the afternoon exploring Pondi. Throughout India, public display of affection is not uncommon. Multiple combinations of males and females can be seen holding hands. Apparently, touching is a way of showing friendship. We had to enjoy some of the Indian brotherly love. After cooling off in the hotel and watching some of the India/England cricket game, the day was capped off by a cozy dinner on top of the hotel. The red snapper was delicious and Jupiter could be seen high above the bay of Bengal.
We finally saw our first victim of India's wild and crazy roads. A man was sitting dangerously close to the shoulder of the road that went from the Dune to Pondicherry. I thought he was a crazy beggar at first, but then I saw the wrecked moped on the opposite side of the road, the large gash on his leg, and the blood gushing out of the wound. I'm honestly surprised that I haven't seen this sort of tragic incident more often. Stephen wasn't able to set a wake-up alarm and complained about missing out on breakfast. He was able to laugh at the ridiculous nature of his 1st world problem when he saw the terrible plight of the wrecked and wounded biker on the side of the road.
We spent the day in Auroville, an experimental community established in 1968 by a French woman known by community members as "The Mother." This cult-like community exists as a social experiment that emphasizes cooperation, discourages competition, and promotes spirituality. A civil engineer with an uncanny resemblance to Bilbo Baggins gave us a personal tour of the property. This Frenchman showed us the "Master Plan" - a planned community expanding concentrically from a central point. In this case, the central point is a giant, gold plated ball that looks like the offspring of EPCOT and the Death Star. I was extremely irritated thinking about all of the money that was wasted on this huge, garish monument that could have been used to construct schools, purchase food, or improve water quality. By the end of this strange day, I was referring to the residents of this weird community as "Aurovillains."
We spent most of today temple touring in Mamalla Puram. It was amazing to witness the intricate structures and mind astounding to think about the degree of creativity and the amount of labor necessary to create them. The most impressive thing that I took away from visiting the temples was an insight on the construction process. Apparently, ancient Indians knew their geology. These ancient peoples utilized the folliation planes of the metamorphic rock (gneiss) by strategically chistleing square holes into the rock, hammering in small pegs of wood, and soaking the wood pegs in water. The expansion of the soaked wood resulted in a force that pried the rock cleanly apart along the folliation plane. Brilliant.
Our next stop of the day was the Shore Temple, which overlooked the Bay of Bengal. The two shrines that constitute this seaside temple are constructed of granite. Since the temple is subject to the sea breezes, weathering on the windward side of the temple is especially pronounced. Saltwater from the sea sometimes comes in contact with the walls of the temple. When the water evaporates, salt crystals precipitate, expand, and force the rock apart. The sea side of the temple was noticeably more weathered as a result of this combined mechanism of chemical and physical weathering. Inside the shrine dedicated to Vishnu, one could find a large basalt pillar , which was imported from the Deccan plateau in Andhra Pradesh. It looked like this specimen of igneous rock contained the darkly colored minerals amphibole and pyroxene. Apparently, this rock is used as a phallic symbol.
Two of the other notable rock types that I observed in the area near the shore temple were laterite and charnockite. Laterite is a rock that is typically found in hot, tropical climates like southern India.This rock is rich in iron and aluminum and has a characteristic red color due to the presence of iron oxides. The process by which laterite is formed (laterization) occurs when intense chemical weathering underneath the parent rock leaches all of the major ions, leaving behind mostly iron and aluminum. As a result of its dense chemical composition, laterite is frequently used in India as a house building medium in the form of bricks. Charnockite is named after Job Charnock, who is the man who first discovered this rock. Charnockite is a metamorphic rock that is classified as an orthopyroxene granite. This darkly colored mafic rock contains the minerals amphipole, pyroxene, and plagioclase. I was surprised by the high specific gravity of this rock.
After our last temple stop at the Shore Temple, we hopped back on the bus and made our way to the Dune Eco Resort. We enjoyed many types of authentic Indian snacks including "good day" and "nice time" biscuits. In India, biscuit = cookie. Suresh pointed out some interesting land forms along the way including man-made pits designed to catch excess water from the ocean. When the water evaporates from the pits, salt is left behind as a useful precipitate. Upon our arrival at the Dune, we were welcomed with coconuts with straws and presented with flowery necklaces.
Just when we were starting to get settled in at MCC, it was time to leave. However, it was enjoyable leaving our home away from home in Tambaram with the knowledge that we were embarking on a 5-day journey to the Pondicherry, one of the nicest cities in southern India. We got on board a large tour bus and ventured out onto the wild streets of Chennai. It was definitely nice being the largest vehicle on the road for a change! One of the stops that we made on the way to our hotel was the Covelong Crocodile farm. I was impressed by the striking force of the King Cobras and the immense size of JAWS III, reportedly the largest known captive crocodile in India (21 ft). Our Taj hotel was one of the nicest hotels I have ever stayed at. We were greeted with seashell necklaces and assorted beverages. The hotel was situated a 9-iron away from the beach and several of us ventured out onto the coarse, tan sand. As we walked towards the water, the red-haired Elizabeth Johnston exclaimed, "This sand is burning my feet." I suggested that she walk more "gingerly." Props to EJ for dealing with my sense of humor. The Bay of Bengal was bathwater temperature and felt extremely good. As I was floating with my friends in the pleasant surf, I realized that I was experiencing the best fall break ever.
The contrast between the affluent and the destitute is striking. Just 1 km away from our 5 star hotel, there are people rummaging through bags of trash in the street gutters, desperately in search of edible objects.
After classes today, the six of us boys ventured into the Tambaram market again. We discovered that afternoons are a good time to go due to relatively low traffic. Some of the new things that we explored included the animal slaughtering area, street food alley, and an upscale men's apparel store. I have a feeling I'm going to be lookin' pretty fly for Diwali on 10.26. The kids in the market are hysterical. They love singing, dancing, goofing off - anything to get attention from the fair skinned foreigners. We were able to communicate with some of the kids and our new friends showed us through a beautiful garden temple near the Tambaram market.
When we got back to MCC, I decided to climb the huge banyan tree that is located right across from our residence at the International Guest House. I was able to jump up, grab several of the hanging vines, and pull myself up hand-over-hand high above the ground below. I'm looking forward to attempting to climb to the top sometime before we leave MCC.
Check it out: Pics of my climb
While we were sitting in class this morning, we got a brief taste of what the monsoon season is like in India compliments of the retreating south-west monsoon that quickly dumped a large volume of water on the campus and then moved on. After class, we did our best to leapfrog the muddy puddles that pocked the dirt roads on campus as we walked to the SOS orphanage. The mosquitoes were much more prevalent in the orphanage - presumably due to the stagnant water. Some of the kids in the orphanage were playing a variation of cricket that closely resembled baseball. It was fun to see how inspired the kids were to play as a result of our presence!
Today was our first day of classes at MCC. The principle gave a lecture on the history of MCC and Dr. Menon delivered a fascinating talk on natural resource management in India. After classes, we ventured off campus as a group. We crammed 10 students, 1 prof, and 1 driver into a bright yellow rickshaw! We drove to bank to exchange our dollars for rupees. Since we were rolling with rupees-on-rupees, we decided to celebrate by picking up some ice cream from a street vendor. For the record, Indian mango cream popsicles are spot on.
Despite the exhilaration of acquiring rupees and enjoying ice cream, I still can't get over the horrid water conditions in the city; trash, cow poop, and human waste fill the stagnant, open air drains. I couldn't help but think how petty my summer RBRI research was considering the dire conditions of Tambaram's water supply. Who cares about a low pH or an anomalous conductivity reading when there is human s__t in the water supply? India has a long way to go in improving sanitation conditions. Enforcing laws prohibiting public defecation would be a start.
Here is a video our rickshaw ride: http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?v=10150245992837325
That was the hardest, deepest 12 hours of sleep I have had in a long time! After a good night of rest, I am better able to appreciate my new, exciting, and exotic surroundings. This morning we left the shelter of the MCC compound and took a group trip across the street and over the bride spanning the railroad tracks into the Tambaram marketplace. I was struck by the overwhelming volume of people flowing in and out of the market. Everyone walks on the left side of the staircases - just the opposite of how it's usually done in the States. I was shocked by the people experiencing foot abnormalities - some people were missing toes due to leprosy, while others had more than 5 to a foot. On a brighter note, we stopped at Suresh's middle school. He was beaming with happiness. It has been interesting to watch the native in him come out since our arrival. He has started using the signature, non-committal head bobble used by many Indians. After experiencing the unforgettable sights and smell of the textile, produce, and fish markets, we stopped at a coconut vendor just outside of MCC. Suresh bought us several coconuts at 25 rupees ($0.50) a piece. Ryan, Eric, and Stephen put the team on their backs and chugged most of the delicious coconut milk. It's finally starting to sink in that I am in India. The natives have been mostly friendly and I feel like I will eventually be able to fit in with the culture.
After 36 hours, 36 minutes, and 36 seconds, our trans-global journey came to an end as we arrived at the Chennai airport around 3:30 AM local time. I was so excited as we began our descent from 30,000 ft., but the anticipation abruptly changed to shock as the German pilot announced that an airplane before us had crashed and that we would not be able to land due to debris littering the runway. Our flight was force to circle, but with fuel running low, the pilot elected to land in Bangalore, where we spent 2 hours refueling and waiting for the Chennai airport runway to clear. We finally made it to the Chennai airport, which possessed the distinct smell of an aquarium. After several nervous minutes waiting to get through customs, and several more minutes waiting on our luggage, the study away group finally stepped foot on Indian soil. I was immediately choked by the hellishly high humidity. Hundreds of people lined the street waiting for passengers as we made our stroll towards the waiting Madras Christian College (MCC) vans. With all of the staring and inquisitive faces trained on our position, I kind of felt like a rock star.
The van ride from the Chennai airport to MCC was one of the most heroic feats of driving I have ever experienced - that's saying something coming from a Bryan Park cart boy haha. Apparently, lines on the road are just "guidelines," as Captain Barbosa would say, and vehicles frequently blared their horns as head-on collisions were narrowly avoided. We safely arrived at MCC around 5 AM local time and elected not to go to sleep in order to fight off the jet lag.
Our first day at MCC got off to an exciting start when a few of us chose to go on a nature walk around campus. Wild boar, deer, and giant fruit bats were among the observed native creatures. In addition to the abundance of wild and exotic creatures, I was struck by the oppressive humidity, dense smog, and the haphazardly ubiquitous distribution of trash scattered throughout the grounds.
Later in the day, a few of us decided to venture off campus. After a few cautious false starts, we successfully crossed 8 lanes of the insanely busy Grand Trunk Highway. I was impressed with the way in which local Indians crossed the road; they casually strolled out into traffic with tremendous faith that the oncoming herd of brightly colored mopeds, cars, bikes, and buses would avoid them.
In the evening we attended a Beatles concert performed by the students and faculty of MCC. It was delightfully surprising to see how much the Indians enjoyed the Beatles. I rarely fall asleep during events/performances, but extreme fatigue from travelling halfway around the world caused me to doze off several times. The verse from Strawberry Fields Forever best summed up the evening and our extensive travels: "Nothing is real and nothing to get hung about..."
I am abroad and on the loose. Look out India!
Naturally Poisoned: Geogenic Contamination of India’s Water
Water is one of the most important natural resources on the earth. Without water, life would not be able to exist. This liquid is responsible for supporting and sustaining the health and well being of living organisms all across the globe. However, in some areas of India, human consumption of this life-enabling liquid results in physical ailments and severe health impacts. This is due in large part to the fact that the water in various regions of India has been contaminated, not necessarily from anthropogenic inputs, but from geogenic sources. Nature is poisoning the water.
One of the major geogenic contaminants of India’s water supply is fluoride (Dissanayake et al, 2010). Although low concentrations of fluoride are helpful in preventing dental carries, the consumption of high concentrations of fluoride can lead to serious health issues. This ion is found in fluoride-bearing minerals, including hornblende, mica, topaz, apatite, phosphorite, and fluorite (184). Fluorite is the primary supplier of fluoride in the environment. This mineral is typically found in rocks such as gneiss, pegmatite, and quartz. Interestingly, regional climate has a large impact on the degree to which fluoride is released into the environment. The higher amount of rainfall in wet regions promotes the leaching of fluoride, which results in low groundwater concentrations of fluoride. Drier regions have less rain, less leaching, and greater fluoride concentration in the groundwater (183). Fluoride contamination is a widespread issue in India, but the states most severely impacted by unhealthy concentrations of fluoride in drinking water include Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. In these states, 50-100% of districts have drinking water containing unhealthy levels of fluoride. The major health issue associated with the consumption of unsafe concentrations of fluoride is fluorosis. This disease damages the enamel of teeth and causes the deterioration of bones and ligaments (187).Tooth damage can inhibit one’s ability to consume necessary nutrients and decreased limb function leads to difficulty in locomotion, which decreases one’s ability to work (Sarkar, 2009).
Arsenic is another key geogenic contaminant. This element is the 47th most abundant of the naturally occurring elements. Arsenic is typically found in sedimentary rocks, including shale, slate, and mudstone (Vaughn, 2006). In India, the tectonic uplift of the Himalayan Mountains resulted in increasing the accessibility of arsenic-containing rocks to chemical and physical weathering, which increased the amount of arsenic in the environment (Dissanayake et al, 2010). Arsenic weathered from the rocks of the Himalayas is transported by water down gradient, where it is then deposited in the sediments of areas of lower elevation. These areas are known as arsenic sinks since large amounts of arsenic are dumped and accumulate there. The northeast corner of India is one of these sinks, and large concentrations of arsenic have been found to accumulate in the sediments of West Bengal (177). Increased reliance on ground water for irrigation and drinking water has resulted in an increase in the number of bore wells in northeast India. Overdrafting of the water table has increased the concentration of arsenic in the water by preventing suspended arsenic to settle and precipitate (Dissanayake et al, 2010). Because arsenic exists at typical terrestrial pH values (6.5-7.5) and can be transported in both oxidative and reductive conditions, it is fairly ubiquitous in the environment. This is bad news for the inhabitants of northeastern India, since ingestion of arsenic contaminated water can cause several types of cancer as well as lead to the onset of cardiac, vascular, and pulmonary disease (Vaughn, 2006).
Currently, there are several methods that can be employed to help mitigate the health effects of geogenic contamination. The magnesium silicate serpentine can be used to absorb large amounts of fluoride ions in aqueous solution. Humans suffering from fluorosis can also be directly treated via intravenous administration of magnesium hydroxide. Magnesium hydroxide has been shown to complex with free fluoride ions, which reduces the impact of fluorosis. The long-term solution to the problem of fluoride contamination involves the widespread practice of the Nalgonda technique, which involves increasing pH and adding chlorine and aluminum salts. Increased public participation and governmental support are needed to implement this technique on a broad scale (Dissanayake et al, 2010).
The mitigation strategies for dealing with arsenic contamination include the use of filters, rainwater harvesting, and regulating bore well distribution and utilization. Although filters are effective in removing arsenic from water, these complex filtration systems often breakdown due to a lack of quality control and an absence of maintenance in rural areas. Additionally, the arsenic removed from the water accumulates in the filtration system in the form of arsenic sludge, which presents another set of health risks.
Rainwater harvesting is another possible method of reducing arsenic-related health problems. Collecting and saving rainwater reduces one’s reliance on groundwater, which means that overdrafting of the water table is reduced. Arsenic concentration will drop as a result of less groundwater pumping since it will be allowed to settle and precipitate. However, rainwater harvesting is not always a practical solution since many houses in India are constructed with thatched roofs, which are not conducive to the collection of rainwater (Sarkar, 2009).
The most effective way of ameliorating the health impacts of arsenic contamination is to regulate groundwater access. Currently, the government is too lax in its restrictions on groundwater pumping. As a result, private individuals are free to tap the ground water, even to the point of exploitation. Already high levels of arsenic in the water are exacerbated by constant groundwater withdrawal. Regulating access to groundwater will allow the water table to properly recharge and reduce the concentration of arsenic in the water.
With all the concern over anthropogenic contamination of the environment, it is easy to forget that there are other sources of environmental contamination. Geogenic materials like fluoride and arsenic occur naturally in the environment, but high concentrations of these substances can result in human health problems. The combination of natural process and human practices can influence the temporal distribution, and thus the health effects presented by geogenic contaminants.
References
Dissanayake, C. B., Rao, C. R. M., and Chandrajith, R., (2010). Some Aspects of the Medical Geology of the Indian Subcontinent and Neighboring Regions. In Selinus, O., Finkelman, R. B., and Centeno J. A., (Eds.). Medical Geology: A Regional Synthesis.Springer.
Sarkar, A. (2009) Sustainable solutions to Arsenic contamination of groundwater: The Ganga-Meghna Brahmaputra Basin (Ch 3), In Water, Agriculture, and Sustainable Well-Being. Oxford University Press.
Vaughan, D. J., (2006). Arsenic, Elements, 2:71-75.
